ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

The primary purpose of this book is to develop an understanding of behavior in organizations. If you have been involved in an organizations, even in a limited way, you may have had occasion to wonder what was happening, or failing to happen, and why. Whether you are studying to be a manager or have no aspirations along such lines, everyone needs to know as much about organizational behavior as possible. All of us are, or will be, involved with one or more organizations in our lifetimes.

However, merely understanding organizational behavior is not sufficient. One must also be able to use such undestanding to predict what is likely to happen and subsequently to influence or control organizational events. The total effort is illustrated as follows.

Understanding            Prediction            Influence

For a manager who must make things happen and whose success is measured by his or her ability to do so, the importance of being able to understand, predict, and influence events and situations is obvious. It may be less apparent that understanding organizational behavior is also important to the non manager. Episodes such as the following ones take place every day in organizations, whatever their nature.

TWO FACETS OF THE NEED TO KNOW

As jim Walton was driving home from work, his mind turned to the events of the day. why was the boss steamed when he learned that a scheduled order could not possibly get out on time ? Jim thought, " i resented the implication that my section was dragging its heels and not performing as well as it could. i tried to explain how things were going, but this only made him more irritable. he seemed to resent my effort. to top it all off, some of the guys have been acting funny. not talking, joking, or kidding around as usual. is it pressure to get the order out? do they resent my effort to stand up for the group? many more days like this and i will be looking for another job. besides, the work has become too routine. do i want this the rest of my life? i'm sure glad that there's a cold beer in the refrigerator."

Dan Weber, supervisor, was driving home after the day's work. what a day! did anything go right? to top it all off, an important order wasn't going to be completed on time. the boss had stressed this one. a good job delivered on time could lead to a new contract that the firm needed badly to offset a slump in business. why couldn't the guys see this and come through? dan throught, "how will this affect my performance evalution next week? promotion? imagine Jim Walton trying to make excuses for the crew! what does he know? who does he think he is anyway? should i crackdown? push them harder? one sure thing, thins can't go on as they have today." 

In these interrelated events, both supervisor and employee are perplexed about what is taking place. the supervisor, dan weber, needs to understand what is happening in his work group. the men may not really appreciate the importance of the job, or they may be up against something beyond their control. such understanding will help dan weber predict or anticipate what is likely to happen if things continue as they are now or if the pushes harder. his job will be made easier if the can anticipate consequences of possible corrective changes, expecially the effect on morale and productivity. finally, dan weber can use his understanding to develop a plan of action to implement the change he decides upon.

Jim Walton, employee, also needs to understand what is happening to him. his feeling of security and adjustment, like his supervisor's, is a affected by his lack of understanding of what has happened. jim walton needs to predict or anticipate how his behavior will affect his co-workers or his boss. also, it is helpful to be able to anticipate how he may be influenced by other employees and organizational activities. finally, jim walton, like most people, is not passive but seeks to influence others and the flow of work events.

Both manager and non manager would be helped by an understanding of human behavior in an organizational setting.

THE STUDY OF ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOR

Organizations exist to produce goods or services, health care, recreation, protection, religious affiliation, and so on. whatever the organization's objective, people must be employee and utilized as individual and as groups. this leads us to the following definition: organization behavior is the study of individuals and group within organizations. ¹ 

However, organization also develop patterns of action and reaction as they respond to environmental changes and utilize individuals and group. these develop as an organization seeks to integrate the human variable (ability, needs) and organization variables (goals, tasks, technologies). characteristic patterns of leadership, conflict, adjusment, and coping with change become established and permeate the organization. the organization developes its own "personality, "its own way of doing things that affects individuals and group. consequently, our study of organization behavior will consist of examining behavior at three levels - individual, group, and organization.

AN OVERVIEW OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

Each of the three levels of behavior can be presented as a model of behavior. such a model can identify some of the key variabels and show how thee are related. models permit us to reality so that we can focus on some of its primary characteristics and seek to understand them. 

Behavior At The Individual Level

The model for developing our uderstanding of organizational behavior begins with behavior at the individual level. in figure 1-1 we see four factors that make the individual what he or she is and influence his or her behavior : perception, atitude, values, and motivations. these same factors can affect an individual's effectiveness or performance. finally, individual effectiveness, job satisfaction, and motivation are affected by job design, that is, by the structuring of job tasks and duties.

Figure 1-1

A Model Of Behavior At The Individual Level

Individual\                     Individual                          Job

     Effectiveness                   Satisfaction

       (Performance)

     Job Design

Perception     Attitude     Values                              Motivations

Behavior At The Group Level

The next building block in our model of organizational behavior is the group as shown in figure 1-2. since the individual interacts with other persons in his or her work groyp, interpersonal behavior links people with one another. personal interactions between two or more persons are influenced by one's personal system, self-concept, needs, and interpersonal orientations.

Next, work group behavior is looked a from the standpoint of the background factors (technology, management practices, economic influences, etc.), required behavior, and emergent behavior. the results of group behavior are seen in terms of productivity, satisfaction, and individual development.

However, most work groups do not operate in isolation : rather, they must interact with other groups to attain an organization's objectives. intergroup relations are influenced by power, goals, and values of the groups.

Figure 1-2

A Model Of Behavior At The Group Level

 

Background Factors

Reguired Behaviors             

Work                                                                       Emergent Behaviors                                                             Intergroup
Group                                                                                                                                                                     Behavior
Behavior

 

Productivity

Satisfaction           

Individual                                                                                               Power

Development                                                                         Goals

                                                                                                Values

Personal System

Interpersonal                                                         Self Concept

Behavior                                                                 Needs  and

                                                                                Orientation

Behavior at the Organizational Level

The third part of our model is behavior at the organizational level as presented in figure 1-3. behavior st this level is greatly influenced by those who manage or direct an organization, and leadership plays a central role in shaping behavior at the individual, group, and organizational levels. leadership also determines the attention given to communication, which ties the organizational together.

Figure 1-3

A Model Of Behavior At The Organizational Level

External Environment                                    Internal Environment

 

Organizational                                                       Management                                                                Organizational

Development                                                         Of Change                                                                      Climate and

Effectiveness

Communication                                                                   Leadership                                    Management

              Of Conflict

The management of change is a response that may be initiated from an external source. organizational development is an approach for changing appropriate factors (people, tasks, structures, and technologies) at the individual, group, and levels of behavior. the last variable at the level deals with the management of conflict. climate and effectiveness are considered outputs of behavior at the third, or organizational, level.

The Complete Model and Organization of the Book

The complete model showing several linkages between the behavioral levels appears in figure 1-4. the model emphasizes the three levels of behavior, key variabels and linkages between variables.

The chapters that follow move through each of the levels of behavior. the next five chapters focus upon individuial behavior. chapters 2 and 3 develop the topic of internal human processes basic to understanding the individul : perceptions, attitudes, values, and motivations. effectiveness of the individual in an organizational context is considered in chapters 4 and 5, which emphasize the work environment, job strain, and job design as causal factors. chapters 6 examines the concept of job satisfaction and measures to increase the quality of life on the job.

Figure 1-4

A Three Level Model Of Organizational Behavior

External Environment                                    Internal Environment

Organizational                                                                                           Management                                                                                                           Organizational

Development                                                                                             Of Change                                                                                                                 Climate and

Effectiveness

Communication                                                                                      Leadership                                                       Management

              Of Conflict

Background Factors

Reguired Behaviors                                             

Work                                                                       Emergent Behaviors                                  Intergoup                         
Group                                                                                                                                         Behavior            

Productivity

Satisfaction           

Individual                                                                    Power

Development                                             Goals

                                                                    Values

Personal System

Interpersonal                                                         Self Concept

Behavior                                                                 Needs  and Orientasion      

                                                               

Individual                                                   Individual                                           Job

   Effectiveness                                      Satisfaction

    (Performance)

     Job Design

Perception             Attitude                                     Values                                         Motivations

The second portion of the text, chapters 7-9, considers group and intergroup behavior. Chapter 7, "interpersonal behavior, " serves as a linking topic between the individual and the group as a focus of analysis. Personal interactions between two or more persons and the dynamics that structure such interactions are the primary concerns in this chapter. The results of interpersonal interactions are examined from a cost-benefit perspective. In chapter 8, the work group is examined as it is affected by factors that range from external social and economic factor to required job interactions. Intergroup behaviours are examined in chapter 9 from the standpoint of antecedents to cooperation and conflict and how these may be managed. This chapter also examines a special kind of intergroup relation : union and management. The dynamics of this assosiation are related to intergroup variabels.

The final section of the text considers behaviors related to the total organization as an entity. chapter 10 explores the ramificxations of leadership and the contigency implication of this function ; leadership styles and the organizatioan context of leadership are examined. chapter 11 focuses on the organization- ide implication of communication and its management. chapters 12 and 13 examined the dynamics of change and the contribution of organization development as an emerging behavior discipline to intelligent change management.

Chapter 14 deals with conflict management. Following the presentation of conflict models, various approaches to the resolution of conflict at different levels of organizational behavior are presented. Chapter 15 explores the important, but complicated, area of organizational climate and organizational effectiveness.

THREE BASIC VIEWPOINTS

OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

The models of organizational behavior as shown in figure1-4 indicate the complexity of this area of study one needs all the assistance available when embarking on such a task. While there are numerous approaches to examining organizational behavior, three will be used to guide our study : systems theory, behavior viewpoints, and contingency approach to problem analysis.

System Theory

The term "system" is not a new one. Everyone is familiar with the idea of a solar system, a nervous system, or a registration system. All system have the following characteristics:²

1. There are a number of parts, and
2. The parts are related to one another in an interdependent manner.

Consequently, a system is defined as a set elements or parts in mutual interaction.

Open and closed systems

There are two kinds of system : closed and open. A closed system is one that responds to nothing outside it self. There are no exchanges with the enviroment that would permit the inflow of energy of any kind. Consequently, a closed system cannot restore itself, and like the so-called perpetual motion machine, it "runs down."

In contrast, an open system admits inputs that are transformed or change in some manner to become outputs as follow.

Inputs                                 Transformation                                Outputs

All open systems exist in an environment that is more or less complex. Both humans and organizational have the characteristics of an open system. For example, an individual has sensory mechanisms that regulate inputs from the environment : sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell. These inputs are processed by the cental nervous system ; the outputs is some kind of behavior.

Equilibrium And Growth Responses Of Systems

In addition to being comprised of mutually interacting and interdependent parts, open systems have two additional characteristics. Systems return to their original state - equilibrium - after being disturbed. After being upset or disturpted, adjustive and corrective activities are set into motion that return the system to a stable condition. For example, if a copying machine breaks down in the reproducing section of an organization, every effort will be made to repair previous healthy condition.

In addition to returning to equilibrium, open systems have a tendency to learn or grow.³ Changing environmental pressures require that a system adopt new patterns of behavior, that is, learn, if it is to survive. Organizations offer new products and service to meet changes in consumer tastes and preferences; to do otherwise invites stagnation and decline. An individual must learn, acquire new skills, and develop additional abilities to avoid becoming obsolete and losing material and psychological rewards.

An open system requires both equilibrium and growth to perform well over a period of time. However, a balance must be maintained between the two actions. Growth and learning require movement away from the existing equilibrium, that is, change. For example, a work group comfortable with the present way of operating may resist an attempt to introduced too rapidly, an individual or group may not learn the new behaviors adequately, and operations become badly disorganized. For this reason, many changes are introduced step by step over a period of time. In this manner a new equilibrium is sought, but the necessary growth is not disruptive.

An Organization As A System

An organization as an open systems is shown in figure 1-5. Various inputs from the environment - for example, human, material, monetary, energy, and informational -a re permitted to enter the organization. Within the organization the inputs are subjected to transformation by various subsystem. The parts of a system have ordered patterns of activity for using the inputs and for achieving the organization's purposes. The outputs have both material and social characteristics, that is, productivity, satisfication, and individual development. The lines at the bottom of figure 1-5 reflect feedback information as to the status of the outputs. Such feedback may signal that the outputs are appropriate or that adjustments are needed in the transformation process and / or in the inputs. In both instances, the feedback serves to bring the system back to equilibrium.

In summary, the systems viewpoints is a reminder that external as well as internal factors may be involved in a situation. Furthermore, there are tendencies for booth equilibrium and growth in most human and organizational systems. These properties represent opposite characteristics that must be considered when a change is made in a system. Finally, the systems viewpoint alert us to the interdependence and interaction of the parts of a systems. a change in one subsystem may affect other parts of the system : a total systems perpective is necessary.

Figure 1-5

An Organization As An Open System

Inputs                            Transformation                              Outputs

                                                Processes

Human                                                                                    Production (Service)

Material                                  By                                             Satisfaction

Money                                    Mutually                                   Individual

Energy                                   Interdependent                          Development

                Information                           Subsystems             

 

Feedback                              Feedback     

Behavior Viewpoints

The influence of the behavior sciences - psychology, sociology, and anthropology - on the study of organizational behavior has been significant over the past thrty years. figure 1-6 shows some of the topics examined by each science and their association with different levels of behavior.

From figure 1-6 we see psychology has provided insight into individual behavior by studying perception, learning, personality, and motivation. Sociology has revealed the dynamics of group behavior by investigating norms, roles, status, and power. Social psychology and of individual behavior within a group that draws upon both psychology and sociology.

Figure 1-6

Some Topics Of Study Found In The Behavioral

Sciences An The Level Of Behavior IIIuminated

Behavioral Sciences and                                                                                                          Level of Behavioral
Topics of Study

Anthropolgy

Human Values, Learned Behavior, Social Change

                                                                                                                                Organizational

Social Psychology

Group Affiliation and cohesion, Attitudes, Social Influence, Leadership

 

Sociology

Group, Process, Norms, Roles Status, Power

Group

                                                                                                               

Psychology

Perception, Learning Personality, Motivation, Attitudes

                                   Individual

Topics of concern in social psychology are group affiliation, group cohesion, attitude, communication, social influence, and leadership. anthropology has been concerned with peoples' learned behaviors and values as influenced by their culture. an organization is affected by the predominant values existing in its environment and brought into the organization by its employees.

Collectively, these scientific disciplines are providing a body of knowledge pertaining to how people behave, why they behave as they,do, and the relationship between human behavior and the total environment.⁴ From these discipline we also become oriented to the basic viewpoint that behavior is caused. it is not arbitrary or random but is a definite respone to the situation. furthermore, behavior is caused by multiple factors. this helps us to overcome the tendency to think that behavior has a single cause planning or action based upon single - cause thinking is likely to be completely erroneous or, at best, superficial.

Our understanding also is enhanced by knowing that behavior may be functonal, dysfunctional, or both for a system.⁵ Behavior is functional if it supports or facilitates something ; it is dysfunctional if it impiars or her workers, this can be functional for job satisfication and morale. furthermore, because systems are interrelated, a change in one subsystems can be functional., dysfunctional, or both for other subsytems. a hange in work procedures in one section of an organizationa may be completely disruptive for another interrelated unit using different procedures. one needs to examined the potential nature of the impact for all implicated systems.

Finally, we gain an appreciation from the behavioral science that behavior has intended and unintended consequences. punishment is intended to prevent offensive behavior, but it may drive the behavior "underground," where it assumes more subtle forms of expression. likewise, a coffee break is intended for relaxation, for- getting away from it all" ; however, work problems are frequently addressed and resolved during this time. one must be sensitive to the intended as well as the potentially unintended consequences of behavior.

Contingency Approach

The basic idea of the contingency approach is that there is one best solution to problems. Each problem must be analyzed in light of all its unique complexities and a solution based upon existing factors and their interrelationship with each other. Over the past decade, there has been a movement away from universal priciples of management and behavioral solutions that are considered appropriate under any set of conditions. For a long time advocates of human relations were prescring democratic or participate leadership without regard to people, tasks, or technology. Now participative management is considered in terms of when it is and is not effective.

While each situation in unique, there are often discernible similarities from one problem, will provide insights, suggest cause and effect relationship, and point to tentative solutions or guidelines for dealing with the new problem. For example, people are notable for their individual differences, but their similiarities also facilitate understanding behavior.

The contingency approach calls for one to study the situation, identify the key factors involved, use theories and concepts to explain what is happening, and then take appropriate action.

Figure 1-7 gives an overall framework for the contingency approach. First, an analysis must be made of the situation. Key internal factors such as task, technology, people, and the like and their importance and interaction must be considered.⁶ Because an organization is an open system, the external factors that are relevant to the situation also must be examined. Interaction between external and internal factors must also be evaluated : this is shown by an arrow between both factors.

However, an understanding of internal and external factors does not complete the contigency approach. Relevant theories, concepts, and models of organizational behavior and amanegemnt are applied to gain additional insight into what is happening. This not only helps one to understand the situation but it also suggests promising courses of action and helps one to select the most promising alternative to effect a change in the situation. By using the most promising alternative to effect a change in the situation. By using the contigency approach, one can make a decision or take a course of action that is dependent on the unique characteristics of the situation.

Figure 1-7

A Contingency Approach to Problem Analysis

 

Situational Analysis                                              Use Relevant Concepts                                        Decision and Action

Internal Factors                                     External Factors

Task                                                        Economic                                               Motivation ?

Technology                                           Political                                  Leadership?

People                                                    Legal                                       Group Dynamics?

Organizational                                       Social                                     Etc.

Purpose

Organizational

Structure

The contingency approach facilitates our understanding by encouraging the identification of key variabel and their interaction in a situation. Also, it is a reminder that behavioral and other concepts and idea are available that can help us to understand what is happening and guide our decisions and actions.⁷ Above all, the contigency approach prevents simple over generalizations from one situation to another and the application of " universal" solutions

SUMMARY

Both the manager and non manager need to understand, predict, and influence organizational behavior. To facilitate this objective, human behavior at the individual, group, and organizational levels are the focus of our study. An overall model of organization behavior was presented that included these three levels and provides the framework for the book

Three basic viewpoints will guide our study and give significance, but interdependent, insight for understanding organizational behavior.

Systems theory reminds us or external and internal influences, interaction, and the tendencies for both equilibrium and growth in human organizational behavior.

The behavioral sciences provide concepts for understanding individual, group, and organizational behavior. Understanding is also aided by the realization that behavior may be functional, dysfunctional, or both for an organizational system.

Finally, the contingency approach gives us an appreciation of the unique factors in each situation and helps avoid the use of universal solution, and the use of relevant concepts provide a flexible framework for decision making and action.

Questions For Study And Discussion

1. Do you agree that non managers need to be  able to understand, predict, and influence organizational behavior? Why?
2. What are the characteristics of an open system?
3. How are the levels of study (individual, group, and organizational) related to the behavioral sciences? To the concept of systems?
4. Can you give any examples from your personal experience that demonstrate the way in which organizations develop consistent patterns of action and reaction?
5. What is equilibrium? How is it achieved?
6. What is meant when we say that behavior may be functional, dysfuncional, or both for a system? Can you give an example of this?
7. What is the contigency approach ? How does this help in the study of organizational behavior?
8. Do you have any objectives you wish to achieve in your study of organizational behavior? If so, what are they?

Woodwork manufacturing company is a furniture producer that specializes in curio cases and small tables. In past years it has experienced rapid sales growth and an expansion of physical facilities. Regardless of the firm’s rapid growth, however, management still operates in many respects as if it were still a small operation. For example, the president walks throught the plant and corrects workers who are “goofing off” or doing something wrong on the spot. On one occasion when there was nothing coming down next to the conveyor with their foreman, Howard Scott, when the president arrived. He gave Scott an angry dressing down, before the men and said that another such incident would reslut in Scott’s being fired. As a result, Scott required his men to be standing at all times, even when there was no work to be done.

THE SHIPPING DEPARTMENT

Ben Shellt has been foreman of the Shipping Department for a good many years. He is generally looked up to by men of his department and is regarded as fair, a man that can be trusted. Shelly stays in his office working on shipping schedules.

The assistant foreman, John Wiley, is a young man who has been at woodwork about four years. He is well liked by the men and really asn’t considered a supervisor in the official sense of the word (see the organizational chart below). He is respected because of his skill at getting his work done.

The work of the Shipping Department consists mainly of lifting heavy boxes and moving them from the storage to the loading area where they are to be loaded onto a truck for transports througthout the country. The variety of furniture styles is wide, and it is up to the foreman and his assistant to determine styles is wide, and it is up to the foreman and his assistant to determine how many of each style should be sent to each truck. The pattern of work is as follows. Two men, the pushers, are stationed at the end of a conveyor located in the packing department. They take turns loading up carts with as many boxes as possible. While one man pushues his cart back into the storage areas, the other loads up his cart. By the time the second worker finishes, the first pusher is back with an empty cart. The conveyor does not deliver boxes at an even flow. At time these two men have their hands full keeping up with the conveyor ; at other times nothing comes down the line.

Two of the pushes are Tom Dorsey and Jim Pike. When Tom and Jim take their carts into storage, they are met by the “stacker,” Will estes, who has finished unloading a cart that he trades for the loaded one. He then stacks the boxes into the are reserved for that style of furniture. The sometimes stacks the area reserved for that style of furniture. The work requires considerable physical strength and skill. The stacker must sometimes stack the heavy boxes twenty-five feet high to save storage space. He must do this without dropping theboxes or permitting them to fall. The boxes have a wide range of sizes and weigths. Also, the pace of this job varies, depending on the flow from the conveyor. Tom, will, and Jim work independently of other men in the department.